Dr. Nagy Melánia[1] - Dr. Tóth Dávid[2]: The types of terrorism - with special attention to cyber and religious terrorism (JURA, 2019/1., 413-422. o.)

I. Introduction - the definition of terrorism

Despite the fact that terrorism is not a new phenomenon, nowadays it threatens more and more the international peace, security, and stability. This is especially true after September 11 terror attacks against the United States of America, which shocked the world. After this tragic event the phenomenon of terrorism has drastically changed the socio-economic and geo-political scenario of the world.[1]

Defining terrorism is a very hard task. There is neither an academic nor an international legal consensus regarding the definition of the term terrorism. Creating a unified definition of terrorism is also complicated[2] due to the fact that terrorism can be very diverse. For example the operation, the goals of the IRA is very different comparing to the Al-Qaeda. United Nations (UN) had attempts in developing an accepted comprehensive definition of terrorism but these had failed. Due to differences of opinion between various members, there is still no internationally agreed definition of terrorism in the UN. Even though the UN Security Council gave a definition of terrorism:

"criminal acts, including against civilians, committed with the intent to cause death or serious bodily injury, or taking of hostages, with the purpose to provoke a state of terror in the general public or in a group of persons or particular persons, intimidate a population or compel a government or an international organization to do or to abstain from doing any act."[3]

There are several academic definitions for terrorism as well.

Bruce Hoffman terrorism experts view:

"terrorism is the deliberate creation and exploitation of fear through violence or the threat of violence in the pursuit of political change... Terrorism is specifically designed to have far reaching psychological effects beyond the immediate victim(s) or object of the terrorist attack. It is meant to instil fear within, and thereby intimidate, a wider "target audience' that might include a rival ethnic or religious group, an entire country, a national government or political party, or public opinion in general. Terrorism is designed to create power where there is none or to consolidate power where there is very little. Through the publicity generated by their violence, terrorists seek to obtain the leverage, influence and power they otherwise lack to effect political change on either a local or an international scale."[4]

According to László Korinek[5] Hungarian criminologist and professor at the University of Pécs defines terrorism as the following:

"terrorism has various form of ideology, particular logic, and results in violence with different methods or with the threat of violence. The aim is to reach political efforts with calling fear in the victim, in the public, in the state, to create a compromising behavior in the society. The declared goal is usually to enforce political, ideological, religious, ethnical etc. radical changes. The means are - in the essence of law - committing common, violent crime".

These definitions are useful and helpful to understand the meaning of terrorism, but hardly adoptable as a legal definition for example in a Criminal Code.[6]

II. The history of terrorism

1. Prehistory of terrorism

The prehistory of terrorism began with the zealots (they are also called sicarii.) This group was one of the very first to practice systematic terror of which we possess a written account. Our knowledge of Zealots' is based on an ancient roman writer Flavius Josephus. Flavius uses the word sicarii - a generic Latin term derived from sicarius, "dagger-man" - to de-

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note the Zealots.[7] According to Flavius the sicarii were "sort of robbers in Jerusalem who slew men in the day time, and in the midst of the city; this they did chiefly at the festivals, when they mingled themselves among the multitude, and concealed daggers under their garments, with which they stabbed those that were their enemies."[8] Their goal was to drive out the romans from the territory of Palestine.[9] The Zealots were a sect and they believed that they had to account to God alone, they had an unquenchable thirst for freedom. While Josephus commonly refers to the sicarii as "robbers" or "bandits", his account of their war clearly portrays it as a fundamentally political and religious struggle. All authorities facing a terrorist faction systematically refer to it as a criminal organization.[10]

In the middle ages the order of the assassins can be called the preview of terrorism. The founder of the sect was Hassan-ben Sabah a strict shiita of Rei.[11] The groups of assassins lived in the Middle East in between the 11th and 13th century. Their most notorious act was the assassination of Monferatti Conrad the King of Jerusalem in 1192. They coopted the use of terror to psychological ends and targeted, among others, a foreign, Christian power: the Crusaders.[12] The Assassins, similarly to the Zealots, killed exclusively with bladed weapons such as daggers and orchestrated their assassinations in mosques or in markets.[13]

To summarize the prehistory of terrorism, we can say and the activity of Zealots and the assassin had some similarities to the modern terrorist groups. These two groups were religiously fanatic, their acts were often politically motivated as well. They used criminal acts (mainly assassinations) to enforce their goal. Even though there are a lot of differences as well, they did not use suicide attacks, their place of activity was local not global and for historical reasons they could not use non-conventional, modern weapons (for example bio-weapons). These two groups were only the initial forms of terrorism.

2. The appearance of state terrorism

The next stage of terrorism was in the Great French Revolution in the late 18th century. Between 1793-1794 the Jacobin got the power to rule. This period of time is called "régime de la Terreur" the Reign of Terror. This was the first time they used the term "terror" in the modern sense. The Jacobin dictatorship was the first form of "state terrorism" which evolved in the 20th century in the totalitarian states. The Jacobin dictatorship used violence and terror against the people, ignored any human and, civil rights and they executed the putative enemies of the state.

The executions were carried out with tool of guillotine. This beheading machine became the image of Jacobin terror.[14]

Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794) was the leader of the twelve men Committee of Public Safety elected by the National Convention, and which effectively governed France at the height of the radical phase of the revolution. He became an emblematic figure of the Jacobin dictatorship. He believed that virtue was the mainspring of a popular government at peace but at that time it must be allied with terror in order for democracy to triumph. Famous quotations from him: "virtue without which terror is evil; terror without which virtue is helpless... Terror is nothing but justice, prompt, severe and inflexible; it is therefore an emanation of virtue."[15]

3. Terrorism in the 19th and the first half of the 20th century

The next chapter in the history of terrorism continued in the 19th century. At that time the bomb attacks appeared, and started to spread. There were two main territories where new terrorists groups started to form: Russia and Ireland.

The Russian anarchists founded their organization in 1878, and their home base was in St. Petersburg. The Russian anarchists divided into two groups in 1879 the Cherny Peredel (Black Repartition) which later became a Marxist movement and the Narodnaya Volya (The People's Will) which was a terrorist group. The Narodnaya Volya's objective was to overturn the autocratic regime of the Tsars, in Russia. They sought democratic and socialistic reforms of Russian political structure, including the creation of a constitution, the introduction of universal suffrage, freedom of expression and the

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transfer of land and factories to the peasants and laborers who worked in them. They saw terrorism as an important tactic in achieving their political objectives, and identified themselves as terrorists. Their most notable attack was in 1881 when they assassinated Tsar Alexander II with a bomb attack.[16]

In Ireland another terrorist model appeared, which was taken up by numerous nationalist movements throughout the world. By confronting British democracy in the midst of World War I, the IRA won independence for the Irish Free State (Éire) in the war's aftermath. The Irish were the first to understand the complex mechanisms defining the disproportion between extremely weak strategic potential and potentially enormous political gain. The IRA and its strategist, Michael Collins, managed to destabilize British rule with very limited means but first-class organization. Their experiment brought hope to myriad independence movements in Europe and beyond.[17]

In the first half of the 20th century state terrorism has appeared again in the Totalitarian states.

At this time also important to mention the assassination of century. In 1914 28th of June, at Sarajevo Franz Ferdinand heir to the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy was killed with pistol-shots by Gavrilo Princip.[18] Princip was a Yugoslav nationalist, a member of the terrorist movement Mlada Bosna (Young Bosnia). In 1914 Princip stated at his trial that "I am a Yugoslav Nationalist aiming for the unification of Yugoslavs and I do not care what the form of state but it must be free from Austria."[19]

Between the two World Wars autocratic and totalitarian systems started to form in Italy, Germany and Russia. The dictatorships of these countries can be classified as state terrorism, similar to the reign of terror in the French Revolution.

4. Modern terrorism

From the 60s the modernization and globalization resulted that the new modern terrorism started to develop. The cultural differences, poverty and other social problems have developed irresolvable conflicts. Due to the economic imbalance, more and more people thought the terrorism is the only right and just answer to solve these conflicts.[20]

The first important stage in the modern terrorism was the Islamic fundamental revolution in 1979 in Iran. The radical Shiites gained the power and they chased away Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi who was close to the USA. At this time several terrorist organization started to strengthen such as the Hezbollah, the Hamas, and the Al-Qaeda. The suicide bombings also started to spread. Furthermore the soviets intervention in Afghanistan also strengthen these organizations power. The suicide bombings in Beirut in 1983 were a significant development in international terrorism, especially the two that killed 241 American Marines and 53 French paratroopers. The attacks were committed by the Hezbollah, and these led to the withdrawal of Western troops and were the most important triumph of international terrorism between 1968 and 2000.[21]

The next turning point and maybe the most significant was the terror attack against the USA in September 11, 2001. The attacks were a series of four coordinated terrorist attack launched by the Islamic terrorist group, by Al-Qaeda. The attacks killed almost 3000 people and caused at least $10 billion in property and infrastructure damage. The terrorist hijacked four airplanes, two of those planes were crashed into the twin towers, one of those to the Pentagon. The fourth plane was targeted at Washington D.C. but crashed into a field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania, after its passengers tried to overcome the hijackers.[22] The Al-Qaeda also took responsibility for similar actions such the bombing in Madrid (2004) and the bombing in London (2005).[23]

III. The Types of terrorism

Terrorism can be classified in several ways. The first classification can be made based on historical grounds. According to this we can talk about conventional and modern terrorism. The differences between the two types are illustrated in table 1[24]:

In the Hungarian legal literature professor László Korinek[25] classifies terrorist organizations as the following:

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Table 1

1) According to their ideological motivation:

a) The extreme left-wing groups (e.g Klu Klux Clan)

b) extreme right-wing groups (e.g Italian Red Brigades)

2) Ethnic, racial, and religious terrorism. Usually these movements strive to achieve the political and territorial independence of a national minority or an ethnic group. In general, they fighting for to protect their ridden religion or they sometimes motivated by the sense of mission against infidels. They consider themselves as Freedom Fighters or war prisoners and their fallen soldiers are respected as martyrs. A good example for this category of terrorism can be the Irish Republic Army (IRA). Their goal is to eliminate the British control, and to merge the Catholic Irish population as a one nation. Another perfect example for ethnic terrorism is the Basque separatist ETA, their aim is to achieve the independence of the Basque ethnic group in Spain and France.

3) The third category according to professor Korinek is state terrorism. In his terminology state terrorism is not when the government or the ruling power uses terror against the citizens but when the state acknowledges or sponsors terrorist groups outside or inside their countries. The terrorist groups can commit assassinations with the state permission, and sometimes with their help. Furthermore they are allowed to do physical destructions, destabilize other states political regime. The following states were accused of state terrorism: USA, Israel, Libya, Iraq, Iran, etc.

4) The fourth category is the so called "Lone wolf terrorism'". This is relatively rare, but nowadays their numbers unfortunately raising. In this case a lonely fanatic deliberately executes assassination against people with high intelligence, and with systematic, mission-consciousness. A good example for lone wolf terrorist was Ted Kaczínski. He was a mathematician between the 1980s and 90s. He committed 16 assassinations against airlines, universities and computer dealers in the United States. Another great example in relatively recent times is the Anders Breivik case. The Norwegian far-right terrorist killed eight people by detonating a van bomb amid Regjeringskvartalet in Oslo, then shot dead 69 participants of a Workers' Youth League (AUF) summer camp on the island of Utøya. In 2012 Breivik was convicted of mass murder, causing a fatal explosion, and act of terrorism.

According to István Gál[26] the ideal form of terrorist organizations can be divided into two groups:

- hierarchical or

- network type organization.

Nowadays the terrorist organizations must work with active adaptation mechanism to respond to changes of the circumstances. Therefore the network type organization form is more effective.

In the USA different types of terrorism have been defined by lawmakers, security professionals and scholars. According to Amy Zalman[27] there are 6 types of terrorism which dif-

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fer according to what kind of attack agents an attacker uses (cyber, for example) or by what they are trying to defend (as in ecoterrorism). The 6 types of terrorism:

1. State Terrorism

This is an arguable term because many definitions of terrorism restrict it to acts by non-state actors, but the history showed us that State can use terror as well. States can use force without declaring war, to terrorize citizens and achieve their political goal. The Jacobin Dictatorship, the totalitarian states in the 20th century has been described in this way.[28]

It has also been argued that states participate in international terrorism, often by proxy. The United States considers Iran the most prolific sponsor of terrorism because Iran armed groups, such as Hezbollah, that help carry out its foreign policy objectives. The United States has also been called terrorist, for example through its covert sponsorship of Nicaraguan Contras in the 1980s.

2. Bioterrorism

Bioterrorism can be defined as the intentional release of toxic biological agents to harm and terrorize civilians, in the name of a political, ideological or other cause. The U.S. Center for Disease Control has classified the viruses, bacteria and toxins that could be used in an attack. Category "A" Biological Diseases can cause the most damage. They include: Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis); Botulism (Clostridium botulinum toxin); The Plague (Yersinia pestis); Smallpox (Variola major); Tularemia (Francisella tularensis); Hemorrahagic fever, due to Ebola Virus or Marburg Virus[29]

Pre-modern armies tried to use naturally occurring diseases to their advantage. In 1346, the Tatar army used Biological Warfare at the 1346 Siege of Caffa. The Mongolian Tatars tried to turn the Plague (the Black Death) to their advantage in their siege of the port city of Caffa (now Feodosija, Ukraine). Caffa was the main port for the great Genoese merchant ships. Dying from plague themselves, soldiers attached bodies of the deceased to catapults, then landed them inside the walled city of their victims. A plague epidemic ensued and the city surrendered to the Tatar forces.[30]

It is interesting that the biggest developers of biological warfare program are States and not terrorist groups. In the 20th century, Japan, Germany, the (former) Soviet Union, Iraq, the USA and Great Britain all had biological warfare development plans. There have been only a few confirmed bioterrorism attacks. In 1984, the Rajneesh cult in the United States made hundreds ill with food poisoning when they put Salmonella typhimorium in an Oregon salad bar. In 1993, the Japanese cult Aum Shinrikyo sprayed anthrax from a rooftop.[31]

Maybe the best example for bioterrorism was the anthrax attacks against the USA. This event is also known as Amerithrax from its Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) case name, occurred over the course of several weeks beginning on Tuesday, September 18, 2001, only one week after the September 11 attacks. Letters were sent to several news media offices and two Democratic U.S Senators. The letters were containing anthrax spores, which killed five people and infected seventeen others. According to the FBI, the ensuing investigation became "one of the largest and most complex in the history of law enforcement."[32]

3. Cyberterrorism

The details of cyberterrorism will be analyzed in the following chapter.

4. Ecoterrorism

The existence of ecoterrorism controversial. The term is a recently coined, describing violence in the interests of environmentalism. In general, environmental extremists sabotage property to inflict economic damage on industries or actors they see as harming animals or the natural environment.

These have included fur companies, logging companies and animal research laboratories, for example. The FBI defines eco-terrorism as "the use or threatened use of violence of a criminal nature against innocent victims or property by an environmentally-oriented, subnational group for environmental-political

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reasons, or aimed at an audience beyond the target, often of a symbolic nature."[33]

5. Nuclear terrorism

Nuclear terrorism refers to a number of different ways nuclear materials might be exploited by terrorist organizations. Terrorist tactics may include: attacking nuclear facilities, purchasing nuclear weapons, building nuclear weapons or creating dirty bombs.

The dirty bombs are composed of conventional explosives such as dynamite to spread radioactive material. The only known dirty bomb related incident when the Chechen terrorists planted radioactive cesium packed with dynamite in a Moscow park. Fortunately the police quickly located the dirty bomb before it was dispersed.[34]

6. Narcoterrorism

The term narcoterrorism was first coined in 1983 by Peruvian President Belaunde Terry. He described narcoterrorism as attempts of narcotics traffickers to influence the policies of a government or a society through violence and intimidation, and to hinder the enforcement of anti-drug laws by the systematic threat or use of such violence.[35]

Since 1983 there were several definitions of narcoterrorism. The most wide known definition was given by the Oxford Dictionary of English: "Terrorism associated with the trade in illicit drugs"[36]. A very short definition which does not indicate whether ideological and political or, criminal and commercial motives are the main driving factors.

In the United States the Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) defines narcoterrorism as the "subset of terrorism, in which terrorist groups, or associated individuals participate directly or indirectly in the cultivation, manufacture, transportation, or distribution of controlled substances and the monies derived from these activities. Further, narcoterrorism may be characterized by the participation of groups associated individuals in taxing, providing security for, otherwise aiding and abetting drug trafficking endeavors in an effort to further, or fund terrorist activities."[37]

According to Jonas Hartelius the simplest way of describing narcoterrorism is as a part of an illegal complex of drugs, violence and power, where the illegal drug trade and the illegal exercise of power have become aggregated in such a way that they threaten democracy and the rule of law.[38]

Perhaps the best example for narcoterrorism is the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (in Spanish Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia. abbreviated (FARC). The group was founded by Manuel Marulanda who opposed the right wing Colombian government and military. The terrorist group fighting against since 1964 against the Colombian government.

While first recognized as a threat in Latin America, narcoterrorism can be found all across the world. From the FARC in Colombia to the IRA in Ireland, and the Kurdistan Workers' Party or PKK (Kurdish: Partiya Karkeren Kurdistan) in Turkey. The globalization is Janus: it has allowed for the interconnectivity of world markets, but it has also allowed for global trade in the illicit market. The terrorist groups can use drug trafficking to fund their operations.[39]

IV. The features of Cyberterrorism

Cyberterrorism is a new phenomenon, and there is no unified definition for it. The term "cyberterrorism" was coined by an American researcher Barry C. Collin. He pointed out that the physical and virtual worlds are inherently disparate worlds, and he defined cyberterrorism as the convergence, of these two worlds.[40]

According to Mark M. Pollitt, who was a special agent for the FBI, offers another definition: "Cyberterrorism is the premeditated, politically motivated attack against information, computer systems, computer programs, and data which result in violence against noncombatant targets by sub national groups or clandestine agents."[41]

Another American researcher Dorothy Denning defined cyberterrorism as - similarly to Barry C. Collin - "the convergence of cyberspace and terrorism. It covers politically motivated hacking operations intended to cause grave harm such as loss of life or severe economic damage."[42]

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The terrorist can benefit from using the information technology. There are two types of using information technology: the soft and the hard method.

The "soft" type of application of information technology indicates when the terrorist organizations, are not using the cyberspace with violence but primarily propaganda activities, to reach and form the public opinion.

The "hard" type of application of information technology are explicitly the use of cyber warfare. These attacks can be: restricting operation of the information infrastructures, sending viruses, worms, botnet attacks[43], phishing, breaking into electronic bank accounts etc.[44]

There are plenty of benefits for terrorist using the cyberspace: they can maintain their anonymity, they can easily contact other member from their group (by e-mails, cell phones etc.) the efficiency of the propaganda can be higher, they can recruit members more easily and more efficiently, and using cyberattacks are more cheap comparing to using suicide bombings.[45] Cyberterrorism has Hungarian aspects as well. According to a Symantec case study[46] it is an interesting - but also sad - statistic that in 2009 every 25th bot-net infected computer operated in the world was found in Hungary.[47]

Another statistics[48] showed that in 2012 Hungary was in the top 10 where the cyberattacks came from. Even though it is important to note that this statistic can be viewed only with a critical aspect, because the IP address of the computer can be manipulated.[49]

V. The features of Religious terrorism

In many mediums religious terrorism is recognized as the synonym of Islam terrorism. There are some author who say the word terrorism should not be used in association with one of the world's biggest religion because it identifies 1.5 billion people with this phenomenon.[50]

It is hard to separate these two phenomenon from each other, due to typically lone wolfs are Islamic believers.

According to David. C. Rapoport, who is a Professor emeritus in the United States and founder of the 4 waves of the terrorism: "Islam is the most important religion and will get special attention below. But we should remember that other religious communities produced terrorists too."[51] For example the majority of the member is follower of the Hindu religion in the case of a terrorist organization called Tamil Tigers (LTTE) wich operates in Sri Lanka. This group can be associated with a high number of suicide bombings. Their fanatics have committed approximately 240 blasts so far. In addition, they developed the so called waist-type suicide belt.[52]

Nowadays religious terrorism is one the most direct threat to the European security policy. The main root of the problem is the extremist interpretation of religious dogmas.

The Extremists in the Islamic religion, are the people who do not interpret the religious sources in their entirety. They cherry pick a few lines and analyse them in order to give ground to their beliefs.[53]

Mark Juergensmeyer's thesis express that: religious terrorism is the expression of the perception crisis of modern times and a response to that.[54] Religiously motivated terrorism came up in the 1980s and is marked by extreme brutality and with seemingly irrational motivations and goals.[55]

Heather S. Gregg gave a comprehensive definition for religious terrorism: the threat or use of force with the purpose of influencing or coercing governments and/or populations towards saliently religious goals.[56]

The purpose of religious terrorism is to achieve "divine commandments." The most extreme religious terrorism uses unlimited violence against all types of targets.[57] Mark Sedgwick proposes that "while the ultimate goal is religiously formulated, the immediate objectives will often be found to be almost purely political. "[58]

Further purposes of the religious terrorist the religious cleansing to create a religiously pure state. The basic device of this aim is a suicide bombing. The definition of the suicide attack by the International Policy Institute for Counter-Terrorism is the following: "a politically motivated violent attack perpetrated by a self-aware individual (or individuals) who actively and purposely causes his own death through blowing himself up along with his chosen target. The perpetrator's ensured death is a precondition for the

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success of his mission."[59] This method has some advantages for the perpetrators, because it is relatively cheap, easy and effective. These three elements give the power for the lone wolfs to kill many people all around the world.

The suicide bombings have the following features:

1) One of the most aggressive tools.

2) The application of bombings will take place if the other actions do not achieve the desired result (ultima ratio principle).

3) It causes long-term fears in the population.

4) The rate of destruction and the rate of casualties are extremely high.

5) It has a major role in the international media.

6) It is easier than other terrorist actions.

7) The perpetrators are not afraid of the criminal law.[60]

The Islam as a religion prohibits suicide, In the Koran there is a specific reference to this: "Believers! Do not kill yourself."[61] The suicide bombers neglect this because they think that if they kill the enemy of Allah with themselves they make an exception to this rule.

Nowadays there are more and more woman lone wolf terrorist. Women can commit more cruel crimes sometimes than man. Terrorist groups realized the efficiency of a women perpetrator. They have several advantages. Firstly the clothes of the women in the Islam is covered very well so they can easily hide the weapons and explosives.[62] Women can also get through security checks more easily. Females can encourage more males to join the war.[63]

The success of a suicide attack consists of two components, one of it is the surprise nature and the second is the extraordinary proximity to the target.[64]

VI. Conclusion

From the historical overview we can conclude that the terrorist actions are essentially a new form of asymmetric warfare. The asymmetric warfare has no declaration of war, no negotiation, and no rules at all.

The terrorist warfare differs from the conventional warfare, because not to the states and armies are confronting each other, but the ideas arising from the economic and ideological beliefs. The radical ideological beliefs can often lead to fanaticism. The fanatical terrorists are not controlled by anything but the service of their ideology. The nature of terrorism has changed recently because the attacks without demands are increasing.

From the typology of terrorism, we can conclude, that terrorism can be classified in many different ways. The different classifications can help us understand this phenomenon.

The states must find the proper answer for new types of terrorism such as cyberterrorism and religious terrorism. The fight against terrorism today can only be successful if there is international cooperation between the states of the world. ■

NOTES

[1] Sabir Michael: Terrorism a Socio-Economic and Political Phenomenon with Special Reference to Pakistan. Journal of Management and Social Sciences 2007. 1. sz. 35. o.

[2] Kőhalmi László: Jogállam és büntetőjog - avagy kételyeim az ezredforduló krimináljoga körül [Rule of Law and Criminal Law - My Doubts about the Crime Law of the Millenium]. In: Karsai Krisztina (Szerk.): Keresztmetszet - tanulmányok fiatal büntetőjogászok tollából. Pólay Elemér Alapítvány, Szeged 2005. 127. o.

[3] UN Security Council resolution 1566 (2004)

[4] Bruce Hoffman: Inside Terrorism. New York, Columbia University Press, 2006. (E-book).

[5] Korinek László: A terrorizmus [The Terrorism] In: Gönczöl Katalin - Kerezsi Klára - Korinek László - Lévay Miklós (szerk): Kriminológia-Szakkriminológia. CompLex Kiadó, Budapest 2006. 447. o.

[6] Tóth Mihály: A terrorcselekmény büntetőjogi szabályozásának és gyakorlatának változásai [The changes of the criminal law regulation and practice of the acts of terrorism] A Magyar Hadtudományi Társaság Folyóirata XXIII: (1-2.) 2013. 30-31. o.

[7] Gerard Chailand - Arnaud Blin: The history of terrorism from antiquity to Al Qaeda. University California Press, London, England 2007. 55. o.

[8] Flavius Josephus: The Wars of the Jews or History of destruction of Jerusalem (Translated by William Whiston). Book II. Chapter 13. 3. o. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2850/2850-h/2850-h.htm (date of download: 2017. 09. 02.)

[9] Bartkó Róbert: A terrorizmus elleni küzdelem kriminálpolitikai kérdései. [The criminal political questions regarding the fight against terrorism] Universitas-Győr Nonprofit Kft., Győr 2011. 59. o.

[10] Chailand - Blin, Op. cit. 56. o.

[11] Oswald Charles Wood, The history of Assasins. Smith and Ernell, Cornhill, London, England 1835. 41. o.

[12] Bartkó, Op. cit. 61. o.

[13] Chailand - Blin, Op. cit. 70. o.

[14] P.M. Jones: The French revolution 1787-1804. Second edi-

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tion. Published by Routledge, New York, USA 2013. 69. o.

[15] Hoffman, Op. cit. (E-book)

[16] Bebesi György: Az orosz szélsőjobb kronológiája. [The chronology of the russian extreme right] In: MOSZT Könyvek 3. "Utak és alternatívák" Előadások és tanulmányok az 1917-es orosz forradalom 90 éves évfordulója alkalmából Pécs, 2009. 21. o.

[17] Chailand - Blin, Op. cit. 97. o.

[18] Szunomár Szabolcs, a világháborút kirobbantó pisztolylövések centenáriuma [The centenary of the pistol shots that lead to the World War]. In: Rab Virág (Szerk.): XII. Országos Grastyán Konferencia előadásai. PTE Grastyán Endre Szakkollégiuma, Pécs 2014. 269. o.

[19] Noel Malcom, Bosnia, a short history. Pan Books, London 2002. p. 153. o.

[20] Bartkó, Op. Cit. 71. o.

[21] Chailand - Blin, Op. cit. 222. o.

[22] Chailand - Blin, Op. cit. 221-223. o.

[23] Sambei Arvinder - Anton Du Plessis - Martin Polaine: Counter-Terrorism Law and Practice: An International. Oxford University Press, New York 2009. 4. o.

[24] Tálas Péter - Póti László - Takács Judit: A terrorizmus elleni küzdelem fogalmi és tartalmi keretei, különös tekintettel annak katonai dimenziójára [Conceptual content and scope of the fight against terrorism, in particular its military dimension] ZMNE Stratégiai Védelmi Kutató Központ Elemzések - 2004/3. http://portal.zmne.hu/download/svki/Elemzesek/2004/SVKK_Elemzesek_2004_3.pdf (date of download: 2017. 09. 15.)

[25] Korinek, Op. cit. 449-450. o.

[26] Gál István: A terrorizmus finanszírozása [The financing of terrorism]. PTE Állam- és Jogtudományi Kar Gazdasági Büntetőjogi Kutatóintézet, Pécs 2010. 9. o.

[27] Amy Zalman: A guide to different types of terrorism. http://terrorism.about.com/od/whatisterroris1/tp/Defining-Terrorism.htm (the date of download: 2017. 10. 10.)

[28] Kőhalmi László: A büntetőjog alapproblémái [The Basic Problem's of Criminal Law], Pécsi Tudományegyetem Állam-és Jogtudományi Kar, Pécs 2012. 24. o. Kőhalmi, Op. cit. 2005. 127. o.

[29] Amy Zalman: What is Bioterrorism. http://terrorism.about.com/od/whatisterroris1/tp/bioterrorism.htm (the date of download: 2017. 10. 10.)

[30] Mark Wheelis: Biological warfare at the 1346 siege of Caffa. Emerg Infect Dis 2002.

http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/8/9/01-0536 (the date of download: 2017. 10. 10.)

[31] Amy Zalm What is Bioterrorism. http://terrorism.about.com/od/whatisterroris1/tp/bioterrorism.htm (the date of download: 2017. 10. 10.)

[32] http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/famous-cases/anthrax-amerithrax/amerithrax-investigation (the date of download: 2017. 10. 10.)

[33] Amy Zalman: Eco-terrorism http://terrorism.about.com/od/e/g/Ecoterrorism.htm (the date of download: 19. 11. 2014)

[34] Graham Allison: Nuclear terrorism, the ultimate preventable catastrophe. Owl Books, New York 2005. Kindle edition (E-book).

[35] Jonas Hartelius: Narcoterrorism. East West Institute and the Swedish Carnegie Institute, Policy Paper 3/2008. 1. o.

[36] http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/narcoterrorism

[37] Thachuk Kimberly: Transnational Threats: Smuggling and Trafficking in Arms, Drugs, and Human Life. London, Praeger security international, 2007. 26. o.

[38] Jonas Hartelius, Op. Cit. 3. o.

[39] John Holmberg: Narcoterrorism http://traccc.gmu.edu/pdfs/student_research/HolmbergNarcoterrorism.pdf (the date of download: 2017. 10. 15.)

[40] Barry C. Collin: The Future of CyberTerrorism: Where the Physical and virtual Worlds Converge, 11th Annual International Symposium on Criminal Justice Issues, 1997. 15-18. o.

[41] Mark M. Pollit: Cyberterrorism - Fact or Fancy? Proceedings of the 20th National Information Systems Security Conference. 1997. 285-289. o.

[42] Dorothy E. Denning: Activism, Hacktivism, and cyberterrorism the internet as a tool for influencing foreign policy. In: Networks and Netwars: The Future of Terror, Crime, and Militancy, J. Arquilla and D. F. Ronfeldt (eds), 2001. 241. o.

[43] The term bot is a short term for robot. Criminals distribute malicious software that can turn your computer into a bot (they also called "zombie"). If a computer is infected with these kinds of malwares, the computer can perform automated tasks over the Internet, without the knowledge of the user. Criminals typically use bots to infect large numbers of computers. These computers form a network, or a botnet. Criminals use botnets to send out spam email messages, spread viruses, attack computers and servers, and commit other kinds of crime and fraud.

[44] Tóth Dávid: A terrorizmus típusai és a kiberterrorizmus. [The types of terrorism and the cyberterrorism]. In: Rab Virág (Szerk.): XII. Országos Grastyán Konferencia előadásai. PTE Grastyán Endre Szakkollégiuma, Pécs 2014. 292. o.

[45] Tóth Dávid, Op. Cit. 292. o.

[46] http://infovilag.hu/hir-17557symantec_jelentes_kiber-bunozesrol_magyar.html (the date of download 2017. 10. 15.)

[47] Nagy Zoltán András: A kiberháború új dimenziói - a veszélyeztetett állambiztonság. [The new dimension of cyber ware - the endangered state security] In: Pécsi Határőr Tudományos Közlemények, XIII. Tanulmányok "A biztonság rendészettudományi dimenziói - változások és hatások" című tudományos konferenciáról. 2012. 229. o.

[48] http://biztonsagportal.hu/felkerultunk-a-kibertamadasok-10-es-toplistajara.html (the date of download: 20. 11. 2014)

[49] Tóth Dávid, Op. Cit. p. 293. o.

[50] Kőhalmi László: Gondolatok a vallási terrorizmus ürügyén [Thoughts regarding religous terrorism]. In: Belügyi Szemle 2015. 7-8. sz. 52. o.

[51] David C. Rapoport: The Four Waves of Rebel Terror and September 11. Los Angeles, Department of Political Science University of California. Volume 8. Issue 1. 2002. 46-73. o.

[52] Kecskés Tímea: A nők, mint öngyilkos merénylők. [The women as suicide bombers]. Nemzet és Biztonság 2009. 4. sz. 26. o.

[53] Maróth Miklós: Mit kell tudni az iszlámról? [What should we know about Islam?], ((T)error & Elhárítás 2015/2. 8. o.

[54] Kőhalmi László, Op. cit. 68. o.

[55] Mark Juergensmeyer: "Understanding the New Terrorism," Current History, Vol. 99, No. 636, 2000. 158-163. o.

[56] http://www.terrorismanalysts.com/pt/index.php/pot/article/view/336/html (The date of download: 2017. 11. 11.)

[57] Bolgár Judit - Szternák György: A terrorizmus társadalmi és személység-lélektani háttere http://www.zmne.hu/dok-isk/hadtud/Szternak2.pdf (The date of download: 2017. 11. 11.)

[58] http://www.terrorismanalysts.com/pt/index.php/pot/article/view/336/html (The date of download: 2017. 11. 11.)

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[59] Béres János: A nők és az öngyilkos-terrorizmus [The women and the suicide terrorism]. Felderítő Szemle, Magyar Köztársaság Katonai Felderítő Hivatal, 2007/3. 16. o.

[60] http://www.dzsihadfigyelo.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/03/8-fejezet.pdf (The date of download: 2017. 11. 11.)

[61] http://mno.hu/kulfold/egy-ongyilkos-merenylo-lelkenek-bugyrai-1327635 (The date of download: 2017. 11. 11.)

[62] Hautzinger Zoltán: A migráció bűnügyi hatásai [The criminal matter effects of migration]. Magyar Rendészettudományi Társaság Migrációs Tagozata, Budapest 2016. 172. o.

[63] Kecskés Tímea: A nők, mint öngyilkos merénylők. [The women as suicide bombers] Nemzet és Biztonság 2009. 4. sz. 26.

[64] http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdf-files/PUB408.pdf (The date of download: 2017. 11. 11.)